For thousands of years, Asia has remained the key point of civilization from Mesopotamia to the Hindus valley that has harbored the tribes of South and Central Asia and as far as China. From ancient texts and from oral tales, we understand that China has played a key role on its surrounding neighbors, including the Turkic Uzbeks of western Asia, to the Mongolian khanates in the north, the Korean kingdoms of Shilla, Pekjae and Koryo to the east and the islands of Japan. China has also left her mark in South East Asia to the southeast as well as the Indian subcontinent to the south. The world knows China has influenced her neighbors in the past and continues to do so in the modern world. However, on the contrary of the world’s opinion that China had minor contacts with her neighbors as mere friendship court visits, many do not understand the importance of China’s influence in South East Asia. This paper will answer the question ‘How did the Ancient Yuan, Ming and Qing China influenced and affected South East Asia?’ This paper will answer that question and prove how the dynastic periods of the Ming, Yuan and Qing influenced South East Asian Kingdoms of Ayuthaya/Siam, the Khmer Empire, Dai Viet/Champa, Bagan, Srivijaya, the Sultanate of Brunei and the Sultanate of Sulu in an cultural and political aspect. This paper shall prove the deep relations China has had with these kingdoms and prove that without Chinese influence, these South East Asian Kingdoms would not have accomplished the feats they were remembered for or expanded in their regional spheres.
Before we can study and analyze the contacts the South East Asian Kingdoms had with the three dynasties, we have to examine the dynasties of the Yuan, Ming and the Qing. The Yuan dynasty was a Mongolic dynasty, established by Genghis Khan, which ruled China from 1279-1369 (Murowchick 145-147) (Khan 7-10). The Yuan rulers were not of ethnic Han nationality, but were of Mongolian ethnicities, who were the first non-ethnic Chinese to unify China militarily. The Yuan dynasty’s rule, although less than a hundred years, saw great political impact on South East Asia. The Yuan dynasty eventually fell due to rebellions and loss of the Mandate of Heaven and a new dynasty rose (Simkin 136-141). Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang established this new dynasty, the Ming dynasty. The Ming dynasty is considered by Chinese historians as one of the great Han-Chinese dynasties to ever establish itself. Under the guiding light of the Ming, China experienced a massive transformation. Resources such as gold, silk, wood, wheat, rice was numerous and man power, especially the fact that the Chinese population boomed under the Ming rule. The Ming dynasty lasted hailed from 1368-1644 (Murowchick 152). After the dynastic fall of the Ming, the Manchu people managed in taking and placed a Manchu Empire, or better known to the world as the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty was established in 1644 after Ming power was crushed, and ended its rule in 1912 (Murowchick 155).
Throughout the span of 600 years, we will analyze the Chinese contacts with direct and indirect influence on the Kingdom of Ayuthaya/Siam, the Khmer Empire, the Kingdom of Dai Viet/Champa, the Kingdom of Bagan, the Empire of Srivijaya, the Empire of Majapahit, the Sultanate of Brunei as well as the Sultanate of Sulu. The Thais are an Asian ethnic group that were once from present day Funan, China, but were forced in an exodus when the Han dynasty destroyed the ancient Thai kingdom of AiLao. Thus, there are considerable Thai speaking people in present-day Laos, Thailand, Burma as well as parts of northern Vietnam as a result of the ethnic diaspora (Kingsbury 139). The greatest Thai kingdom to be established was Ayuthaya, which lasted for over 400 years, from the mid 1200s to the 1770s, under the guidance of Ayuthayan god-kings (Barraclough 168-169).
The Ayuthayan kingdom was rich in history as well as in culture, but could not have been as great as it was, had it not been for the influence of the Chinese dynasties. The Yuan dynasty played a key role in that it waged a destructive war with the Kingdom of Bagan, which was once a great power in the western parts of south east asia. After the war, Bagan was destroyed and the Thai princely states were able to take control of Mon and Shan regions once ruled by the Bagan power, thus allowing Ayuthaya to grow (Kingsbury 141). Ayuthaya owes a great deal to the Chinese politically. Had the Yuan dynasty not warred with the Burmese, Ayuthaya would have never been able to expand and acquire the man power as well as the rice low lands of the Chao Phraya region, the impetus for future imperialistic growth. Another example of how the Yuan dynasty aided Ayuthaya was when Bagan was destroyed; the Thais were encouraged to attack the Khmer Empire and partitioned old territories that were under the control. This is an example of political pressure from China, forcing the Thai kingdom to act and in doing so expanded and in the process gaining fame and historical reverence (Simkin 153-155). Ayuthaya was influenced culturally in that during the span of the Ming as well as the Qing dynasties, there was observable Chinese immigration into the Thai kingdom of Ayuthaya. After Ayuthaya’s fall, the modern day Siam, commonly referred as Thailand, Chinese immigration continued and resulted in a cultural mix of Chinese and Thai. As a result, the Thai-Chinese minority gained elitist status when they controlled the economy as the trade between Ayuthaya and China continued (Cushman 44-50) (Kahn 7-8).
Even before the rise of the Thai, or the growth of the Vietnamese Empire of Annam, there was once a great power in South East Asia. A power than commanded territories as far north as Annam, South as the Malay Peninsula and as far west as the very gates of Burma. This power was once known as the great Khmer Empire, which rose in the early 9th century and fell to the mighty Thais in the mid 15th century. The Khmers were influenced partially by China as well as from India, being that it was under heavy Indian influence prior to Chinese contact (Barraclough 132-133). The Khmer Empire was influenced and affected politically by one particular Chinese dynasty, the Yuan dynasty. During the Yuan wars in the south, which resulted in the destruction of Bagan, the Thais were induced to attack and defy Imperial Khmer sovereignty. As a result, the overwhelming forces of the Ayuthayan Thais destroyed the Khmer capital of Angkor, thus catalyzing the fall of the Khmer Empire. This is one example of negative indirect Chinese influences on a South East Asian kingdom (Simkin 153-154). Culturally, the Chinese influenced the Khmer Empire by the extensive trade the Khmers had with the Chinese. One particular example of this would be the Chinese introduction of silver and gold as monetary units, that was eventually used by the Khmer Empire. The Chinese partaking trade with the Empire influenced the Khmer market and people, as Chinese merchants came to Angkor, intermarriages would be necessary, as quoted:
In Cambodia women tend to trade. Even a Chinese who arrives there and takes a woman will profit greatly from her trading abilities. They do not have permanent stores, but simply spread a piece of mat on the ground. Everyone has her own spot. I have heard they pay an official for the right to a location. In small transactions, one pays in rice, grain, Chinese goods, and lastly, fabrics; in large transactions the use gold and silver (Simkin 122).
The Chinese influenced the Burmese Kingdom of Bagan directly by force. The Mongol Yuan dynasty warred with Bagan, which resulted in the total destruction of Bagan. Bagan was a major power in western South East Asia, but after her destruction, the Thai kingdom of Ayuthaya engulfed her spheres of influence. This is an example of direct negative Chinese influence on a South East Asian kingdom (Simkin 153) (Murowchick 145-146). Culturally, both Hindustani and Chinese civilizations influenced the Bagan Burmese Kingdom, however, cultural contacts between China and Bagan were minor trading compared to the vast trading systems Bagan had with Indian Kingdoms of Kalinga and Chola. The relationship between Bagan and Yuan dynasty was an example of pure political ramifications (Simkin 155-159).
As rivalry and power struggled continued in central and western parts of South East Asia, regional struggle in southern Vietnam and northern Vietnam continued. During this time, there were two kingdoms that were constantly at war. These two kingdoms were Dai Viet and the Kingdom of Champa. The Kingdom of Champa was a hinduized state that was established in the 2nd century A.D. The Chams, as the people of Champa were referred to as, experienced economic prosperity with the cultural contact with Han dynasty China to the Ming dynasty China at one side and economic as well as cultural integration with India and Arab traders (Simkin 25-26). The Champa kingdom came in contact with China in the form of Annam. Annam was an indigenous Vietnamese kingdom before being swallowed by the mighty Han Empire, thus we see massive Chinese correlations between Vietnamese culture as well as politics with China. The Vietnamese fell under Han control in 111 B.C until the fall of the Han dynasty. From 111 B.C to the 4th century A.D, we assume Assam was Chinese, and at this time Champa continued its war with Chinese controlled Assam.
Chinese influence continued to partake on Champa as well as Annam until Annam declared its independence on the 4th century A.D. Political influence ceased from China to these two kingdoms until the arrival of the Yuan expansionists, where the proud Champa kingdom allied themselves with Dai Viet, the new kingdom that took the place of Annam. Their alliance allowed their survival and beat back the Yuan horde. This is one example of how the Chinese influenced regional kingdoms politically in forming alliances against Chinese expansionist tendencies form dynasty to dynasty (Simkin 24-27). Culturally, the Han as well as the Yuan dynasties influenced Champa and Dai Viet kingdoms by intermingling with the ethnic indigenous peoples, making the kingdoms essentially Chinese, a typical Chinese tendency for South East Asian kingdoms that had direct Chinese military influence (Murowchick 145-149) (Barraclough 128-129).
From the texts and written annals from the Han to the Qing, contacts with South East Asia were observed and sometimes direct, however, Chinese influences on the island kingdoms of South East Asia such as the vast Empire of Sri Vijaya as well as the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu. The Empire of Sri Vijaya was a mighty sea faring state that participated extensive trade with India, surrounding South East Asian Kingdoms such as the Majapahit and the mighty Thai Kingdom of Ayuthaya. Srivijaya made contacts with China in the forms of ambassadors and trading partners, as we know that Srivijayan junk made their way to the ports in southern China. This was an example of cultural impact, with Chinese goods such as silk, gold being consumed by Srivijaya and Chinese importing Srivijayan products. Although Srivijaya was influenced by China politically as well as culturally, she was directly influenced compared to her northern neighbors such as the Thais, Khmers and Chams, who were militarily influenced. The geographical location of Srivijaya as being a vast island kingdom prevented immediate land invasion, as most of her neighbors were faced with, rather she enjoyed a perfect defense besides occasional rebellions within her peripheries (Kimball). The relationship Srivijaya had with China culturally was interesting in that instead of Srivijaya learning from China, it was China learning and utilizing Srivijaya. The reason for this was that the maritime empire was the center for learning Sanskrit; enabling Chinese Buddhist monks to learn the dead writing system as well as learn the Srivijayan form of Buddhism, as a Chinese monk quoted:
In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than one thousand whose minds are bent on learning and good practices. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in the Middle Kingdom (China); the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the west in order to hear and read he had better stay here one or two years and practice the proper rules and proceed to central India (Simkin 112).
While Srivijaya was a Buddhist empire and was influenced by the Yuan and Ming dynasty, the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu were mainly influenced by Ming traders. These Kingdoms differed from the rest of the other South East Asian states in that these two were the only Muslim kingdoms, whereas the others such as Khmer Empire, Ayuthaya, Champa, Dai Viet, Bagan, and Sri Vijaya were mainly Buddhist or Hindu (Brunei). Both the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu were one consolidated power, however maintained 2 sultans. The sultanates, like the Srivijayan Empire enjoyed an open Chinese trading partner and experienced no military threats from the Ming dynasties. The sultanates were introduced to the Ming dynasty with the arrival of Zheng He and his fleet, toured South East Asia as well as the Indian subcontinent and Arabia. During his 7 voyages, Brunei and Sulu strengthened their cultural ties with China; The Ming dynasty sent Chinese princesses to the Sultans as a form of friendship and hence linked the kingdoms with China. The cultural links between the sultanates and China continued even after the fall of the Ming dynasty; trade and cultural link continued with the Qing dynasty (Barraclough 146-147) (Wow Philippines).
The Chinese truly were a force to be reckoned with as they proved their ability to shape and form policy as well as history. Throughout the entire paper, we examined the major kingdoms of South East Asia that were hailed by western powers and China as major players within the Asian-Pacific region. To the common man, they might think of China as a gentle and passive power, especially towards her neighbors, in this case it would be South East Asia. However, they would have never realized that the dynasties of Yuan, Ming and Qing had direct and indirect influences in shaping the histories of South East Asian Kingdoms in a political and cultural aspect. Truly, we can come to a conclusion and prove that without Chinese influences, South East Asia as we know it today would not be the same.
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Topic: Chinese Influence in South East Asia:Cultural, Economic and Political Discourse (Read 1633 times)