II. Catholic Biblical Interpretation Throughout HistoryA. The Early ChurchThat the early Christians held the Bible in high esteem can be easily detected from studying early Christian commentaries, sermons, liturgies, and art. They agreed on the inspiration of the Scriptures (though there was disagreement over which books were canonical) and viewed the Bible as a "single work of a single Author." Among the great Scripture scholars of the early Church were Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Pope Gregory the Great in the West, while Athanisius, John Chrysostom and the Cappadocian Fathers (Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa) were among the best-known in the East.
While some of the Fathers, e.g., Melito of Sardis, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, suggested principles for the interpretation of the Scriptures, rules remained generally flexible during this early stage. Allegorical interpretations of the sacred texts were accepted so long as the allegory pointed to the Christian Faith and were not at variance with Apostolic Tradition. The well-known maxim of Vincent of Lerins was very much the rule of the day: quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus (what [has been taught] everywhere, always, and by all).
The literal, historical truth of the Scriptures was usually assumed by the Fathers. However, some were an exception to this such as some belonging to the School of Alexandria. Origen, for instance, taught that the events of the Old Testament were not necessarily historically accurate, but served as stories to communicate spiritual truths. In contrast, the School of Antioch such as John Chrysostom strongly rejected this approach, and maintained the historical reality of the Scriptures.
As the centuries passed, the natural familiarity with the languages of Scripture (Greek and Hebrew) and the early oral traditions diminished. Thus, the need for a more formal set of principles for hermeneutics and exegesis arose. Gradually, the continued development of the art and science of Biblical study led to the great Catholic tradition of the four senses of Scripture.
The first of the four senses is the literal sense, which, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, is the sense upon which all of the senses rest. The literal sense is simply the literal and direct meaning of the words, although this could include metaphor (e.g., the Sons of Thunder would still be the literal sense even though it is metaphorical).
The other three senses, the allegorical, anagogical, and moral, together form the spiritual sense. The allegorical sense focuses on the symbolic meaning produced by the words. The many instances of foreshadowing in the Old Covenant of the New are examples of this sense. The anagogical focuses on how the words relate to what Catholics call the "four last things;" namely, death, judgment, heaven, and hell. Lastly, the moral sense teaches the effect of the words on how we live. The teaching of the four senses was summed up in a well-known medieval couplet:
Littera geta docet, quid credas allegoria,
moralis quid agas, quo tendas anagogica.In essence, this can be loosely translated to say: "the letter teaches us what happened; what you are to believe is called allegory; what you are to do is called the moral sense; the anagogical sense has to do with the final end of your life."
B. The Middle AgesThe study of the Scriptures thrived throughout the middle ages, an era in which theology and Biblical studies were considered the "pinnacle of learning" and the "queen of the sciences." During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church preserved and transmitted the Scriptures. It is said that two monks working full-time required four years to transcribe the entire Bible. Hence, it was due to their incredible value and their desirability as an object to steal that Bibles were sometimes chained down in churches and libraries (as were other books of high value), and not because of a Church conspiracy to keep the Bible from the masses, as some would assert. To the contrary, the Church did all in its power to transmit the written word during the Middle Ages as it also helped to preserve Western learning and culture.
This era extolled the search for truth wherever it was to be found. It is not surprising, therefore, that in this era universities, libraries, and the arts and sciences flourished. Biblical studies and interest in the original languages expanded in this time. For instance, the Council of Vienna (1311) prescribed that chairs for the study of oriental languages be erected in universities.
Perhaps the most well-known movement of the Middle Ages in Biblical studies was the School of Scholasticism. The great scholars of this age, among whom were Bernard of Clairvaux, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventure, sought to synthesize reason and faith. This school of thought studied philosophy and the Natural Law in light of the word of God. For example, Aquinas explained the Christian faith in light of the teachings of Aristotle in an attempt to demonstrate that Christianity is a reasonable, logical, and truthful faith. It might be worth noting, however, that the Church was careful to maintain that in spite of the value of reason and philosophy, grace was needed to attain faith, hope, and charity. That is, one could reason his way to the truth using natural means, but only through supernatural grace could one believe and be saved.
Theologians of the Middle Ages relied heavily on the commentaries of the Fathers and were cool toward new and innovative interpretations. Scholars such as the English historian and theologian Bede, Peter Lombard, and Thomas Aquinas produced works that collected the writings and opinions of the Fathers. Another scholar of the time illustrated the times when he wrote, "It is better not to be taken up with supposedly new ideas, but to be filled from the fountain of the ancients."
Scriptural study also relied heavily on the allegorical sense of Scripture. Indeed, in the eyes of many today, some of these interpretations might seem "imaginative," if not absurd. Mark Holtz explains:
We are told by Hugh of St. Victor (c. 1090- 1141) that the length of Noah's Ark, 300 cubits, is a sign of the Cross, since the number 300 is represented in Greek by the letter tau (T), which has the shape of a cross. Rupert of Deutz (c. 1075-1129) tells us that Proverbs 19:12, "A king's wrath is like the growling of a lion," speaks of Christ in his crucifixion, since then the King of kings roared at the Devil.
Certainly, at least some of the interpretations proposed during the Middle Ages might be discarded today as an over-zealous use of the spiritual sense. However, it also reflects the deep conviction held by theologians of the age in the inspiration of Scripture. In contrast to liberal modern exegetes, they were able to see God as the ultimate author of Scripture. Consequently, even the most mundane verses were often seen as having spiritual significance and being open to allegorical interpretations.
C.The Counter-ReformationIn the 16th century the Church found itself facing critical challenges in the form of Turkish invaders approaching the gates of Vienna, and the Protestant Reformation. In many respects, the Church had been experiencing a gradual decline in spiritual vigor since the 13th century. Problems included increased corruption among the clergy, inadequate catechesis of the laity, and the scandalous Great Schism, during which two popes claimed to be the legitimate successor of Peter--one in Rome and the other in Avignon, France.
The Church responded to the Protestant Reformation in the Council of Trent. The Council Fathers admitted the Catholic Church's culpability in the decline of morality and teaching in the life of Christians. However, the Council reiterated the traditional doctrines in response to the Reformers' new interpretations of the Bible. The Vulgate was re-affirmed as free from any error in faith and morals. The Vulgate's traditional canon was also upheld, which includes the deutero-canonicals of the Old Testament (called the "Apocrypha" by Protestants, who reject the books as part of the canon). This canon had been generally accepted by the Church for centuries as evidenced by the Councils of Hippo and Carthage in 393 and 397 A.D., and other councils. Trent, however, left no room for any doubt, and authoritatively defined the canon once and for all.
In the Reform-minded Church, Biblical studies thrived once again. Jesuits such as Peter Cansisius, Robert Bellarmine, and Francisco Suarez were among the best known theologians. Interest also continued to grow in studying the original languages. Thomas More, for instance, asserted, "How can [anyone] know theology if he is ignorant of Hebrew and Greek and Latin?"
D. The Enlightenment to the Modern EraThe rejection of Church authority that exploded during the Reformation opened the door to the critical and skeptical approach to the Bible. In the Post-Enlightenment period during the 17th and 18th centuries, liberal Protestant Scripture scholars began to reject the inerrancy of the written word of God. In the 19th century the historical-critical method of Scriptural study gained ground, which studied Scripture in light of the historical processes in which it was written. The historical-critical scholars were influenced by Hegel and other modern thinkers. Consequently, they approached the Bible with rationalist and naturalist presuppositions, according to which any supernatural events in the Bible were explained away as products of mythology.
The methodologies of the rationalists were condemned by the Church toward the turn of the 20th century. For example, Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Providentissimus Deus (1893) forcefully rejeced the heretical and faithless denial of the truth and inspiration of the Bible, while exhorting Catholics to study it. In 1943, Pope Pius XII penned Divino Afflante Spiritu, in commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of Proventissimus Deus. The Pontiff wrote that the science of literary criticism had developed to the point that it could be safely employed in Biblical studies without jeopardizing the true meaning of Scripture. He also encouraged Biblical scholars to stay abreast of archaeological, cultural, and other historical studies in order to better understand the sacred writers' words.
Among the documents produced by the Second Vatican Council (an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church convened between 1962 and 1965 in order for the Church to respond to the sweeping changes that were taking place in society), Dei Verbum (the Word of God) is among its finest. This document summarized the Catholic Church's stance on Divine Revelation. It reiterated the great treasure Christians possess in the Scriptures, their inestimable value to teach truth and lead us to follow Christ. It also taught that literary forms, historical contexts, and other such "human elements" must be taken into consideration in Biblical studies. Highly influential in the formation of Dei Verbum was Sancta Mater Ecclesia (Holy Mother Church), released by the Pontifical Biblical Commission in 1964. This document set forth the Catholic understanding of the Gospels, emphasizing their historicity and relationship to oral tradition of the apostles.
Sadly, we must lament that during the post-conciliar (post-Vatican II) era many in the Church distorted the true intent of the council in order to promulgate many of the things that had always been explicitly condemned by the Church. Examples include the explaining away of the miraculous events of the Bible as mere mythology and the unreserved acceptance of the historical-critical approach (in complete disregard for Providentissimus Deus, Divino Afflante Spiritu, and the Church's entire tradition of Biblical interpretation). All too numerous are the accounts of bewildered parishioners who endured homilies in which it was explained that demons were merely "first-century explanations of psychological disorders," or that the miracles of Jesus were legends created later by the early Christian community.
Pope John Paul II together with Cardinal Ratzinger, the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, have slowly but steadily attempted to bring the ship back to the original course set by the Second Vatican Council Fathers. The new Catechism of the Catholic Church, released in 1994, contains a marvelous section on Sacred Scripture. The Catechism sets forth orthodox Catholic doctrine and has inestimable value in helping guide the Church for years to come. Also included is a marvelous section on divine revelation, which describes the four senses of Scripture. This move was interpreted by many as a clear signal from the Vatican affirming the validity of the traditional views of Scripture.
Another key document was the Pontifical Biblical Commission's The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church (1993). While this document upheld the use of the historical-critical approach to Scripture as a means to more accurately ascertain the meaning of Scripture in light of the historical, culture contexts in which it was written, it warned of the potential dangers stemming from this approach, especially when it is utilized to the exclusion of the spiritual interpretation. This document reaffirmed that Biblical interpretation is not solely the work of university scholars. Rather, the Bible is the living, active word of God, which lives principally in the hearts of the members of the Church.
Certainly, it would be naïve and overly-optimistic to say that the Catholic Church has emerged from the doldrums of the post-conciliar period. However, the Catholic faithful look with hope to the future, believing Pope John Paul II's view that the Church stands poised at the beginning of a new springtime--a blossoming that is sure to include the renewed emphasis on Biblical study in the life of the Church.
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